15 January 2015 A.D. Islam According to the Reformers—Luther, Calvin, Calvinist Dordt Bible, Westminster Assembly, and Jonathan Edwards

15 January 2015 A.D.  Islam According to the Reformers—Luther, Calvin, Calvinist Dordt Bible, Westminster Assembly, and Jonathan Edwards

Hammond, Peter. “Islam According to the Reformers.” Reformation Society. N.d. http://www.reformationsa.org/index.php/reformation/159-islam-according-to-the-reformers. Accessed 14 Jan 2015.

According to the Reformers

Islam According to the Reformers

 

In expounding Daniel 9, Martin Luther noted that among others, the prophet Daniel was talking about the Muslim Turks, who at that time were invading Europe: "In the latter part of their reign, when rebels have become completely wicked, a stern-faced king, a master of intrigue will arise. He will become very strong, but not by his own power. He will cause astounding devastation … He will cause deceit to prosper and he will consider himself superior. When they feel secure, he will destroy many and take his stand against the Prince of princes. Yet he will be destroyed, but not by human power." Daniel 9: 23 – 25   Luther wrote that the "two regimes, that of the Pope and that of the Turk, are … antichrist."   John Calvin in a sermon on Deuteronomy 18:15 maintained that Muhammad was one of "the two horns of antichrist."   In his commentaries on Daniel (7: 7 – 18), Calvin put forward the theory that the Muslim Turks were the little horn that sprang up from the beast. As the Turks had conquered much of the old Roman Empire, much of the prophecies concerning Rome could apply to the Muslim world. Islam was one of the two legs of the later Roman Empire described in Daniel 2.   Commenting on Daniel 11:37, Calvin wrote that Muhammad "allowed to men the brutal liberty of chastising their wives and thus he corrupted that conjugal love and fidelity which binds the husband to the wife … Mohamet allowed full scope to various lusts – by permitting a man to have a number of wives … Mohamet invented a new form of religion." (Commentaries on the Book of the Prophet Daniel – John Calvin).   Luther noted that Christ warned about false prophets coming from the desert (Matthew 24: 24 – 26) and this certainly included Muhammad.   Commenting on 2 Thessalonians 2: 3 – 12, Calvin wrote that … "the sect of Mohammad was like a raging overflow, which in its violence tore away about half of the church."   In his commentary on 1 John 2: 18 – 23, Calvin states that the Turks "have a mere idol in place of God."   Luther observed from 1 John 2: 18 – 22 and 4: 1 – 3, "Who is the liar? It is the man who denies that Jesus is the Christ. Such a man is the antichrist – he denies the Father and the Son." 1 John 2: 22, that the Mohammadans deny both the Fatherhood of God and the Deity of Christ – hence they are liars. They testify against the truth of God’s Word.   On 1 John 4: 3 – 6: "but every spirit that does not acknowledge Jesus, is not from God. This is the spirit of the antichrist … this is how we recognise the spirit of truth and the spirit of falsehood", Calvin noted that "Mohammad too asserts that he has drawn his dreams only from Heaven … False spirits claim the Name of God." Luther observed that the Muslim Turks want "to eradicate the Christians."   The 1637 Calvinist Dordt Bible in Dutch, comments on Revelation 16:12 that the Muslim nations of the East would still unite with one another in a Pan-Islamic Jihad against the West.   The 1643 Westminster Assembly’s "Larger Catechism" calls on Christians to ... "pray, that the kingdom of sin and Satan may be destroyed, that the Gospel propagated throughout the world …" It’s "Directory for the Public Worship of God" instructs congregations to "pray for the propagation of the Gospel and Kingdom of Christ to all nations, for the conversion of the Jews, the fullness of the gentiles, the fall of antichrist, and the deliverance of the distressed Churches abroad from the tyranny of the anti-Christian faction, and from the cruel oppression and blasphemies of the Turk."   Commenting on Rev. 9: 1 – 11, the Dutch Dordt Bible of 1637 suggests that Muhammad is "Apollyon" (which is Greek for the Hebrew word "Abaddon" which means destroyer) and the army of locusts and scorpions are the Arab and Saracen armies which wage Jihad in Muhammad’s name.   In his Institutes (Book 2, chapter 6:4), Calvin writes: "So today the Turks, although they proclaim at the top of their lungs that the Creator of Heaven and earth is God, still, while repudiating Christ, substitute an idol in the place of the true God."   Jonathan Edwards, the first President of Princeton University, wrote in his "A History of the Work of Redemption." "The two great works of the devil which he … wrought against the Kingdom of Christ are … his Anti-Christian (Romish or Papal) and Mahometan (Muslim or Islamic) kingdoms … which have been, and still are, two kingdoms of great extent and strength. Both together swallow … up the Ancient Roman Empire; the (Papal) kingdom of Antichrist swallowing up the Western Empire, and Satan’s Mahometan kingdom the Eastern Empire … In the Book of Revelation (chapters 16 – 20) … it is in the destruction of these that the glorious victory of Christ at the introduction of the glorious times of the Church, will mainly consist…" In a sermon on 2 Timothy 1:3, Calvin explained: "The Turks at this day, can allege and say for themselves: ‘We serve God from our ancestors!’ … It is a good while ago since Mahomet gave them the cup of his devilish dreams to drink, and they got drunk with them. It is about a thousand years since those cursed hellhounds were made drunk with their follies … Let us be wise and discreet! … For otherwise, we shall be like the Turks and Heathen!" (Sermons on Timothy and Titus – John Calvin).   Calvin pointed out that the reign of antichrist will be destroyed by the Word of God (2 Thessalonians 2:8). "Paul does not think that Christ will accomplish this in a single moment … Christ will scatter the darkness in which antichrist will reign, by the rays which He will emit before His coming – just as the sun, before becoming visible to us, chases away the darkness of the night with its bright light.   "This victory of the Word will therefore be seen in the World. For ‘the Breath (or Spirit) of His Mouth’ means simply His Word … as in Isaiah 11:4, the passage to which Paul appears to be alluding … It is a notable commendation of true and sound doctrine that it is represented as being sufficient to put an end to all ungodliness, and as destined at all times to be victorious over all devices of Satan. It is also a commendation when … a little further on … the preaching of this doctrine, is referred to as Christ’s ‘coming’ to us." (Commentary on Second Thessalonians - John Calvin).   "The Kingdoms of the world have become the Kingdom of our Lord and of His Christ, and He shall reign for ever and ever." Revelation 11:15   "All nations will come and worship before You …" Revelation 15:4   "The desert tribes will bow before Him and His enemies will lick the dust ... All kings will bow down to Him and all nations will serve Him." Psalm 72: 9-11   Dr. Peter Hammond   This article is also available as a PowerPoint presentation here.

- See more at: http://www.reformationsa.org/index.php/reformation/159-islam-according-to-the-reformers#sthash.goinz4sy.dpuf

Mr. (Rev. Dr. Prof.) Carl Trueman: Calvin & Historical Context

(Mr. Andy Underhile): Church Fathers on Depravity

By Mr. Andy Underhile

Church Fathers on Depravity

If you’ve ever entertained the notion that the freedom of the will is something that has been monolithically believed by the Church, then perhaps the contents of this short post will help unburden you of that mistake.


 One does not need to study the Fathers very long to read their declarations on human sinfulness. Paul’s disciple and traveling companion, Clement of Rome, writes, “Let us turn to every age that has passed, and learn that, from generation to generation, the Lord has granted a place of repentance to all such as would be converted unto Him.” (1) And again he says, “And we, too, being called by His will in Christ Jesus, are not justified by ourselves, nor by our own wisdom, or understanding, or godliness, or works which we have wrought in holiness of heart; but by that faith through which, from the beginning, Almighty God has justified all men…” (2) God must grant repentance, because fallen man is so lost he would never seek it on his own. God does not merely grant forgiveness, but the desire for repentance itself. Paul says, “It is God who works in you both to will and to do” (Phil. 2:13). And notice also that Clement affirms that our calling is made effectual by God’s will.
 

“They who are carnal cannot do spiritual things… unbelief (is incapable of) the deeds of faith.” (3) This is the pronouncement of Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp’s fellow disciple of the Apostle John. Those who are in the state of unbelief cannot repent and believe unless it be granted from above. Faith and repentance are spiritual acts. Those who are in the flesh cannot perform spiritual acts.

In the anonymous Epistle to Diognetus, we read, “having made it manifest that in ourselves we were unable to enter into the kingdom of God, we might through the power of God be made able…Having therefore convinced us in the former time that our nature was unable to attain to life.” (4) The author of this short work clearly affirms that it is only through the power of God that we can attain to life. This is nothing in our nature that can avail.

Irenaeus writes, “For the Lord taught us that no man is capable of knowing God, unless he be taught of God; that is, that God cannot be known without God.” (5) This refers to more than special revelation. Irenaeus means to say that a saving knowledge of God must begin on God’s part. We cannot begin the process.

Explaining how our corruption is such that we must be rendered spiritual by God Himself, Irenaeus attests, “But we do now receive a certain portion of His Spirit, tending towards perfection, and preparing us for incorruption, being little by little accustomed to receive and bear God… This earnest, therefore, thus dwelling in us, renders us spiritual even now.”(6)

 

The great Carthaginian theologian Tertullian quite aptly remarks, “To begin with the passage where He says that He is come to ‘to seek and to save that which is lost.’ What do you suppose that to be which is lost? Man, undoubtedly. The entire man, or only a part of him? The whole man, of course. In fact, since the transgression which caused man's ruin was committed quite as much by the instigation of the soul from concupiscence as by the action of the flesh from actual fruition, it has marked the entire man with the sentence of transgression, and has therefore made him deservedly amenable to perdition.”(7)
 

For the rest, see:

http://andycontramundum.blogspot.com/2010/04/church-fathers-on-depravity.html

Mr. Jake Griesel: "Gottschalk of Orbais (c. 804-869): Important Link Between Augustine & Calvin"

Another good post from Mr. Jake Griesel.

Gottschalk of Orbais (c. 804-869): An important link between Augustine and Calvin

http://deovivendiperchristum.wordpress.com/2013/09/26/gottschalk-of-orbais-c-804-869-an-important-link-between-augustine-and-calvin/

Below is Gottschalk’s confession which he presented in his defence at the Synod of Mainz in 849. I have put the sources he quoted in bold to show clearly where he was drawing from Augustine and other early church leaders (which the Reformers also did):

“I believe and confess that God, omnipotently and unchangeably, has graciously foreknown and predestined holy angels and elect men to eternal life, but that He like manner (pariter) has, by his most just judgment, predestined head of all the demons, with all his apostate angels and also with reprobate men, who are his members, on account of their foreknown particular future evil deeds, to merited eternal death: this the Lord Himself affirms in His Gospel: ‘The prince of this world is already judged’ (John 14:11).

Augustine, beautifully explaining these words to the people (Augustine on John, tract. 95), has spoken as follows: ‘That is, he has been irrevocably destined to the judgment of eternal fire.’ Likewise concerning the reprobate, the same is true: ‘Who then believeth not is already judged’ (John 3:18), that is (as the aforesaid author explains), (tract. xii), already is damned: ‘Not that judgment now is manifest, but that judgment is already wrought.’ Likewise explaining these words of John the Baptist: ‘man has received’ (John 3:32), he speaks in this wise (tract. xiv): ‘is a certain people prepared to wrath by God, damned with the Devil.’ ‘Those dead scorners, predestinated to eternal death.’ Again (tract. xlviii): Why did the Lord say to the Jews: (John 10:26), ‘Ye believe not because ye are not of my sheep’ (John 10:26), unless he saw that they were predestinated to everlasting destruction and not to life eternal by the price of his own blood. Also, explaining these words of the Lord (ibid): ‘My sheep hear my voice and I know them and they follow me and I give to them eternal life, and they shall never perish, and no one shall snatch them out of my hand: My Father who gave them to me is greater than all, and no one is able to snatch them out of my Father’s hand’ (John 10:27-29), and he says this: ‘What can the wolf do? What can the thief and robber do? They destroy none, except those predestined to destruction.’ Speaking in like manner concerning the two worlds (tract. lxxxvii) he says: ‘The whole world is the church, and the whole world hates the church; the world, therefore, hates the world, the hostile that which is reconciled, the damned that which is saved, the polluted that which is cleansed.’ Likewise (tract. cx) he says: ‘There is a world concerning which the Apostle says: ‘that we should not be condemned with this world’ (1 Cor 11:32). For that world that the Lord does not pray, for he certainly cannot ignore that for which it is predestinated. Likewise (tract cvii): ‘Judas the betrayer of Christ is called the son of perdition as the one predestinated to be the betrayer.’ Likewise in Enchiridion (cap. 100): ‘To their damnation whom he has justly predestinated to punishment.’ Likewise in the book On Manichaeus’ Perfection in Righteousness he says (cap. 13): ‘This good, which is required, there is not anyone who does it, not even one; but this refers to that class of men who have been predestinated to destruction: indeed, upon those the foreknowledge of God looks down and pronounces sentence.’ Likewise in the books de Civitate Dei (lib. xxii, c. 24): ‘Which is given to those who have been predestinated to death.’ Likewise blessed Gregory the Pope (Moral. lib. xxxiv, c.2): ‘Leviathan with all his members has been cut off for eternal torment.’ Likewise holy Fulgentius in the third book Concerning the Truth of Predestination and Grace (lib. iii, c. 5) says: ‘God has prepared punishment for those sinners (at least) who have been justly predestinated to the suffering of punishment.’ And blessed Fulgentius has composed one whole book for his friend Monimus concerning this tantamount question, that is: Concerning the Predestination of the Reprobate to Destruction, (lib. i).

Whence also holy Isidore says (Sentent. 2. cap. 6): ‘Predestination is double (gemina) whether of election to peace, or of reprobation to death.’ The same thing, therefore, (with others) I believe and confess, though whatever may happen, with those who are the elect of God and true Catholics, according as I am helped by divine inspiration, encouragement and provision. Amen.
False, indeed, is the witness, who in speaking of any aspect of those things, corrupts them either superficially or with respect to their essential sense.”

- Gottschalk of Orbais (c. 804-869), Confessio Brevior (Shorter Confession)

For the rest, see: http://deovivendiperchristum.wordpress.com/2013/09/26/gottschalk-of-orbais-c-804-869-an-important-link-between-augustine-and-calvin/

Children's Books: Polycarp, Ignatius, Irenaeus, Athanasius, Augustine, Charlemagne, Calvin, & Lady Jane Grey

POLYCARP OF SMYRNA

POLYCARP OF SMYRNA: THE MAN WHOSE FAITH LASTED tells the story of a hero. He was a follower of Jesus Christ. He loved and served his Lord for over eighty years. And from the beginning to the end - his faith lasted.

http://www.amazon.com/Polycarp-Smyrna-Heroes-Sinclair-Ferguson/dp/1848710925/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_y
 

IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH

IGNATIUS OF ANTIOCH - THE MAN WHO FACED LIONS is the story of a hero. He was a follower of Jesus Christ. He was prepared to live and die for his Lord. And one day - he faced lions.

http://www.amazon.com/Ignatius-Antioch-Heroes-Sinclair-Ferguson/dp/1848710933/ref=pd_sim_b_2 

  

IRENAEUS OF LYONS

IRENAEUS OF LYONS: THE MAN WHO WROTE BOOKS tells the story of a hero. He was a follower of Jesus Christ. He served him far away from home. And to help his fellow Christians - he wrote books.

http://www.amazon.com/Irenaeus-Lyons-Heroes-Sinclair-Ferguson/dp/1848710941/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_y 

  

ATHANASIUS OF ALEXANDRIA

http://www.amazon.com/Athanasius-Christian-Biographies-Young-Readers/dp/1601781512/ref=pd_sim_b_5 

"A complex and fascinating character, Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, is best remembered as the Father of Orthodoxy, upholding the doctrine of the Trinity against the Arian heresy. In the newest addition to the Christian Biographies for Young Readers series, author Simonetta Carr introduces children to the life and times of this important church father who tirelessly defended the Nicene Creed, which many of us today recite as a confession of our faith. Born during the Great Persecution, forced five times to leave his church and city, and constantly threatened by those who tried to ruin his reputation, Athanasius provides an example of godly faithfulness. Beautiful illustrations and a winsome, simply written narrative will bring the Nicene Creed to life for children of all ages, prompting relevant discussions on the divinity of Christ and the importance of creeds and confessions."

AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO

http://www.amazon.com/Augustine-Hippo-Christian-Biographies-Readers/dp/1601780737/ref=pd_sim_b_1 

"Outside of the people in the Bible, Augustine of Hippo is the most influential person in church history. Yet how many people know his story? In this book, Simonetta Carr introduces young readers to the life and ministry of Augustine. Readers will come to know Augustine's personal struggles and the high value he came to place on the Bible and truth. Readers will also see the difficult days in which Augustine lived, learning about his disputes with false teachers and the turbulent times during the fall of the Roman Empire. This volume is vividly illustrated, simply written, and full of interesting facts. It is written for young readers, but is sure to capture the interests of the whole family." 

CHARLEMAGNE OF EUROPE

http://www.amazon.com/Charlemagne-Early-Middle-Rulers-Their/dp/0761414878/ref=pd_sim_b_99

Grade 5-8: This attractive volume doubles as a biography of Charlemagne and an overview of everyday life during his reign. Part one covers the ruler's life and period in power while the second section includes chapters on "The Christian Church," "Education," "A Variety of Crafts," and other topics. Unfortunately, Greenblatt makes several errors in discussing Charlemagne's family. A final section contains poems, oaths, spells, letters, and historical accounts. Quality, full-color reproductions of period art illustrate the text and one inadequate map is included. Sources for quotations are noted. Timothy L. Biel's Charlemagne (Lucent, 1997), for older students, is a thorough and readable study but also contains errors. Fiona Macdonald's The World in the Time of Charlemagne (Dillon, 1998; o.p.) is similar in format to Greenblatt's work but encompasses the entire globe, making it less pertinent for those interested primarily in European activities.
Ann W. Moore, Schenectady County Public Library, NY

CALVIN OF GENEVA

http://www.amazon.com/Calvin-Christian-Biographies-Young-Readers/dp/1601780559/ref=pd_sim_b_2

“This helps young readers study the life, thought, and work of one of the most famous Reformers of the Christian church. She tells about the life of John Calvin from his birth to his death, placing him within the troubled context of the sixteenth century. She also introduces Calvin s writings in a way that children will desire to know more about his ministry and influence. Readers will come to know Calvin s personality, his devotion to God and the church, and the personal challenges he faced. They will understand the struggles the early Reformed church faced at that time, not only surviving attacks of the Roman Catholic Church, but also achieving a clear identity and a unified doctrine. They will also have a glimpse of life in sixteenth-century Europe, stricken by pestilence, poverty, and wars. Simply written, and full of interesting facts, this book makes a great gift for children of this rich Reformed heritage.” 

LADY JANE GREY OF ENGLAND

http://www.amazon.com/Lady-Christian-Biographies-Young-Readers/dp/1601781903/ref=pd_sim_b_4

“Lady Jane Grey has been admired for generations for her courage and faithfulness to the gospel even though she was executed for treason at the age of sixteen. In this addition to the Christian Biographies for Young Readers series, Simonetta Carr tells Lady Jane Grey's story of intrigue and explains its context: the tumultuous politics of Reformation England. Maps, photographs, and beautiful illustrations decorate the narrative, helping young readers visualize what life was like in sixteenth-century England. More importantly, they will learn the story of an extraordinary young girl who understood that she was saved only by the mercy of God and the merits of the blood of Jesus Christ.”

Dr. Richard Muller: "Calvin and the Reformed Tradition"

http://heidelblog.net/2012/11/its-here-muller-on-calvin-and-the-reformed-tradition/

It’s Here: Muller on Calvin and the Reformed Tradition

This is going to be fun. Anyone who is interested in the history of Reformed theology, in finding out what the classical Reformed authors (of which Calvin was one) actually said, must get to grips with the work of Richard Muller. By the way, before I continue, by “get to grips” I don’t mean, “copy the footnote data from WorldCat into a footnote or bibliography and go on to write as if Muller hadn’t written.” It’s remarkable how often one sees this. No, by “get to grips” I mean that one must actually get the book, open it, read it, and take account of the claims made and the evidence presented. Here’s his big argument in this volume.

…the essays in the book pose the argument that developing Reformed approaches to the work of Christ and the order of salvation do not fit easily into a set of standard and sadly current caricatures and misrepresentations both of Calvin and of later Reformed thought on such issues as limited atonement, hypothetical universalism, union with Christ, and the order of salvation. (pages 10–11)

To get to grips with Muller is not always to agree with him. He doesn’t always agree with himself! There is an earlier and a later Muller on certain issues:

There are…several places in the present volume where the differences between my early work in Christ and the Decree and my present understanding of the place of Calvin in the development of Reformed thought and in relation to later orthodoxy are evident—notably in the discussion of Christ’s work and its limitation and the discussion of the practical syllogism. In both instances, I recognize that my earlier analysis allowed more cogency to the neo-orthodox line of argumentation about the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century sources than was warranted.

What happened? He reports that, 30 years ago, he allowed “aspects of the faulty” 19th- and 20th-century “master narratives” about Calvin and Reformed orthodoxy to “deflect” his attention from the “original contexts and implications of Calvin’s thought and of the thought of various Reformed writers.”

History is telling the truth about the past as best we can. There is truth to tell about the past. To deny that is to fall into skepticism and to reduce history to politics. That’s folly. Nevertheless, no one, not even Muller, gets it right all the time. A good historian necessarily revises. He is always learning, always going back to sources (ad fontes) in their original context, always seeking to overcome anachronism (reading the later back into the earlier), and to clear away the dust of (i.e., to criticize) received narratives in light of further study. In this way Muller is following his teacher David Steinmetz, who likewise was not content to settle on received narratives once he found them to be false.

Agree or not you will always learn from Richard. I’ve been learning from his work since 1993 when my tutor, John Platt, said that Richard’s work had caused him to reconsider his well-received (and still helpful) work in Reformed Thought and Scholasticism: Arguments for the Existence of God in Dutch Theology, 1575–1650. He told me to “follow Muller.” Carl Trueman (and I) tried to help communicate some of the new approach to the history of the Reformed and Lutheran traditions in Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment (1998) but even that volume has been succeeded in certain ways by Willem van Asselt’s marvelous Introduction to Reformed Scholasticism. I’ve replaced Protestant Scholasticism with Van Asselt’s book in our Medieval-Reformation course.


If you teach or write about the history of Reformed theology I hope that you’re accepting Richard’s invitation to reconsider historiographical methods. In a sense his program is less about conclusions, as the preface illustrates, than it is about methods. The study of the history of Reformed theology has been victimized by poor methodology for far too long. Why it persists after 1978 (when Muller began publishing) or after 1998 when the new consensus was summarized, is hard to say. One possibility is that some folk have a good bit at stake in the old story built on poor methods. Barthians were able to set him against the evil, rationalist Reformed orthodox, to make Calvin a proto-Barth and Beza the “bad boy of Reformed theology” (Paul Schaefer’s summary of this argument). Other’s have done the same in the service of their own heroes.

If you’re interested in learning more about Muller’s project and work here’s the Office Hours episode with him and the lectures he gave last year on campus and a fairly complete Muller bibliography.

Here are more posts (and even more) like this one.

Have fun.

Daniel's Place: Dr. Richard Muller's talks at WSC

"Daniel's Place" in reporting on lectures at WTS-CA.  A few observations.  (1)  Dr. Muller is a premier and respected writer on Reformation and Post-Reformation writers in the Reformed tradition.  (2)  The architecture, assuming this is the Chapel, surely, regrettably and severely lacks the Anglican approach.  Nevertheless, for the sake of the theology and lectures, an important post at:  http://puritanreformed.blogspot.com/2012/02/dr-richard-mullers-talks-at-wsc.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+puritanreformed+%28Daniel%27s+Place+-+%28Reformata+et+semper+reformanda%29%29

Dr. Richard Muller's talks at WSC

The last two days (Feb 28th and 29th 2012) saw Dr. Richard Muller gave lectures at Westminster Seminary California (WSC), which I was privileged to attend. The talks can now be heard in the resource center here:

1. Was Calvin a Calvinist?
3. Calvin and Beza on Practical Syllogism (Calvin on Assurance)

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/mark-noll/protestantism-today_b_1024374.html

View My Collections >

 

Anniversaries have the potential to renew a sense of the past in the present, to spark a fresh awareness of important but neglected milestones, and to prompt the best kind of intellectual debate over the deeper significance of by-gone persons and events. They can, as is well known, also be put to evil purposes. One of the truly black days in recent history was June 28, 1989, when the Serb firebrand, Slobodan Milosevic, used the 600th anniversary of the Battle of the Blackbirds in 1389 (when a small force of Slavs defeated a much larger army of Saracen Turks) to set off the disastrous ethnic cleansing that ravaged the former Yugoslavia.

Yet positive benefit from anniversary celebrations certainly accrued for all who in 2009 marked the 200th anniversary of the births of Charles Darwin and Abraham Lincoln (born, as it happens, on exactly the same day). In 2011 commemorations of the 400th anniversary of the King James translation of the Bible and the 150th anniversary of the American Civil War have been producing a remarkable range of thoughtful retrospections.

So, one can hope, it will be as the clock ticks down to October 31, 2017, the quincentennial of the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. On that day 500 years ago a little-known German monk, Martin Luther, posted 95 theses (in Latin) on the door of the Castle Church in Saxon Wittenberg in order to prompt a debate on the Catholic church's promotion of indulgences. The dispute on indulgences (certificates purchased to reduce time in purgatory for relatives or oneself) soon got out of hand. Within four years, this once obscure monk stood before the most exalted ruler of the western world and told the Holy Roman Emperor, the Habsburg Charles V, that he was "bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not retract anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience."

Eight years later in 1529, those who followed Luther in being willing to exit the Catholic church if their reforming goals could not be met were given the name "Protestants." The occasion was another high-level conclave convened by Charles V where he heard an assemblage of German princes declare, "We are determined by God's grace and aid to abide by God's Word alone, the holy gospel contained in the biblical books of the Old and New Testaments." Within only a few more years, this German "protest" against the emperor's attempt to restore the religious unity of Europe had spread to England, Scotland, the Netherlands, France, parts of eastern Europe and even outposts in Spain, Italy, and other centers of continuing Catholic strength. Within less than a century, Protestants had established European beachheads in the New World.

And today? Nearly 500 years after Luther's initial provocation in Wittenberg, Protestants and Protestant-like movements are all over the map, both literally and figuratively. The recently published "Atlas of World Christianity" enumerates about 500,000,000 adherents to churches and denominations that trace their descent directly or indirectly from 16th century Protestant beginnings and several hundred millions more in "independent" churches with Protestant origins or strongly Protestant characteristics.

The dynamic recent changes in world Christianity that have been well described by Philip Jenkins, Dana Robert and other outstanding scholars have affected Protestants even more than other Christians. A century ago, roughly three-fifths of the world's identifiable Protestants lived in Europe, with another third in the United States. Today, almost three-fourths of identifiable Protestants live outside of Europe and the United States. More Anglicans go to church regularly in each of Nigeria and Uganda than in Britain and America (as Episcopalians) combined. Ethiopia, Tanzania and Madagascar all have Lutheran denominations as large as the biggest Lutheran denominations in the United States. There are far more identifiable Pentecostals in Brazil than in the United States. Among the countries with the most rapid recent Protestant expansion have been Armenia, Cambodia, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Nepal and -- most significantly -- China. As observant students have noticed, the recent expansion of non-western Protestant churches has been driven much less by missionaries from Europe and America than by local believers establishing local movements in response to local needs.

It was a challenge when asked to write the "Protestantism" volume for Oxford University Press's "Very Short Introduction" series to make sense out of a movement with very distinct origins in early modern Europe that now is predominately located where the preoccupations of that earlier time and place are not even a memory. How, in other words, to incorporate into one story both Martin Luther and David Yonggi Cho, the Pentecostal pastor of the Yoido Full Gospel Church in Seoul, Korea, which with its nearly one million members has for many years been the world's largest Christian congregation?

An answer could not even be attempted without acknowledging the extraordinary diversity of world-wide Protestantism. That diversity is structural since it describes a broad religious tradition that began as church-establishments in Europe (challenging Catholic doctrine but preserving the Christendom instincts of Catholicism); that then added a voluntary form exemplified best by the constitutional separation of church and state in American experience; and that over the last century and a half added yet another form as Christian groups throughout the world exploit American-style voluntarism in settings far from Europe or America. Moreover, a multitude of doctrinal differences, differing musical forms, different political attitudes and huge differences in wealth and social power overlays this structural diversity.

The result is that in form Protestantism more closely resembles Judaism or Islam than Catholicism. Yet if Protestantism lacks structural or organizational coherence, it is nonetheless still possible to perceive the effects of a common inheritance and to note a number of widely shared characteristics.
Thus, most of the world's Protestants adhere to a characteristic message that defines peace with God (and the possibility of harmony with fellow humans) as a result of the "gospel": God's merciful gift revealed in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. They believe that this message comes alive today through the agency of God's Holy Spirit. Protestants characteristically look to the Bible as the fullest revelation of God's general will. Even more, Scripture functions as the divinely-given narrative of God's saving actions in Jesus, a narrative into which all humans are graciously called. Most Protestants, even those within strong denominational traditions, also organize themselves through energetic practices of local agency, action and authority. And most Protestants stress the privileges and responsibilities of individual initiative.

One of the most important questions attending the run-up to Oct. 2017 concerns Protestant influence on the cultures where Protestants have flourished and now are flourishing. Historically, Protestant movements have been identified closely with a number of the West's most significant cultural achievements: the music of Bach, the artistry of Rembrandt, the science of Johannes Kepler and the British Royal Society, the promotion of capitalism (formulated forcibly, but also controversially, by Max Weber), the individualistic democracy of the United States (described memorably by Alexis de Tocqueville).

Attention to such matters has led to both sloppy filiopietistic triumphalism and much uninformed finger-pointing. But it has also stimulated extraordinarily sophisticated attempts to weigh the pluses and minuses of Protestant cultural influence (a noteworthy example is forthcoming this fall from Harvard University Press: Brad Gregory's "The Unintended Reformation: How a Religious Revolution Secularized Society").

Commemorations in 2017 offer an ideal occasion to examine the effects of Protestantism in societies where Protestants are newcomers. Could there be someone in Tanzania who, inspired as J. S. Bach was by his deep Lutheran convictions, will transform the music of East Africa? Will a latter-day Weber or Tocqueville find China a laboratory to measure the effects on economic or political life from the confluence of Confucian and Protestant values? Protestant movements will exist -- thriving and decaying both -- long after 2017 has come and gone. As the anniversary year approaches, it is much to be hoped that it will stimulate the right kind of commemorations with the right kind of discerning seriousness.

LETTER XXV—JOHN CALVIN TO SIR WILLIAM CECIL, SECRETARY TO THE QUEEN OF ENGLAND

Calvin writes in 1559 to Sir William Cecil, Secretary to Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth 1. This period follows the persecuting reign of queen Mary who succeeded Edward VI. Mary was enthroned October 1553 and died November 1558. Cecil was first promoted by the duke of Somerset and became a distinguished lawyer; by his moderate and temporizing conduct during Mary's bloody reign, he escaped punishment. He continued in England and, upon the accession of Elizabeth, he was made secretary of state.

LETTER XXV—JOHN CALVIN TO SIR WILLIAM CECIL, SECRETARY TO THE QUEEN OF ENGLAND.

For writing to you familiarly, most accomplished man, I shall not make a long apology, although I am personally unknown to you. Relying on the testimony of some pious persons, who have declared to me your generosity of heart, I trust that you will be disposed to receive my letter with pleasure ; especially when you shall discover from the perusal my intention in writing. Since the awful darkness which had almost stupified the minds of pious men is dispersed, and the clear light has suddenly shone forth beyond all hope, it is reported that you, possessing distinguished favour with her majesty the queen, have endeavoured diligently to remove the profligate superstitions of Popery, which had accumulated through four years in England, so that the sincere doctrines of the gospel, and the pure and entire worship of God, again flourish. I have now therefore to exhort you freely and openly to commence your warfare for Christ. This one thing however remains, that what you do, you should proceed to do with the greatest activity and most invincible constancy. Your holy labours should neither be broken by any troubles, difficulties, contests or terrors, nor even in the least degree retarded. I doubt not, indeed, but that obstacles sometimes encounter you; and that dangers rise full before your eyes, which would dishearten the most resolute, unless God should sustain them by the most wonderful power of his Spirit. This is the cause, for the defence of which it is not lawful for us to decline the most arduous labours. During the time that the public place of execution was appropriated for burning the children of God, you yourself remained silent among others. At least then, since greater liberty is restored by the singular and incredible favour of God, it becomes you to take courage; and if you was, during that period, too timid, you may now compensate that loss by the ardour of your zeal. I know very well that a preposterous haste is injurious; and that many retard their progress by an inconsiderate and precipitate zeal, with which they would leap in a moment to the end of their race. But on the other hand, it is faithfully to be considered, that to maintain the whole truth and pure devotion of the gospel, is the work which God assigns us, and which must not be slothfully undertaken. From the present state of things, you are better able to judge, what steps are proper to be pursued, and what degree of moderation is to be exercised. But yon will remember, that all delay, with however specious colours it may be covered, ought to excite your suspicion. One fear, I conjecture, is from popular tumults, since among the nobles there are many who would kindle up the fire of sedition; and if the English become tumultuous among themselves, their neighbours are at hand, who anxiously watch for whatever opportunity may offer for their purpose. But as her most serene majesty has been wonderfully raised to the throne, by the hand of God, she cannot otherwise prove her gratitude, than by shaking off all delays by her prompt alacrity, and surmounting all impediments by her magnanimity. Since it can hardly be otherwise, but that, in the present turbulent and confused state of things, her attention should be suspended among important affairs, her mind perplexed and sometimes wavering; I have ventured to exhort her, that, having entered the right course, she should persevere with constancy. Whether I have done this prudently or not, let others judge. If, by your endeavours, my admonition produces the desired effect, I shall not repent of having given her that counsel. Consider also, most illustrious sir, that God has placed you in that degree of favour and dignity which you hold, that you might be wholly attentive to this concern, and stretch every nerve to the accomplishment of this work. And lest slothfulness by any means creep upon you, let it now and then come into your mind of what great moment are these two things: First, in what manner that religion, which was miserably fallen away ; that doctrine of salvation, which was adulterated by abominable falsehoods; that worship of God, which was polluted with defilements, may recover their lustre, and the Church be cleansed from this abomination? Secondly, how the children of God among you may be free to invoke his name in sincerity; and how those who are dispersed may be again collected ? Farewell, most excellent man, sincerely respected by me. May the Lord guide you by his Spirit, protect and enrich you with all good gifts.

JOHN CALVIN
Geneva, January 29, 1559.

LETTER XVII—CALVIN TO CRANMER, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY

From The Life of Calvin by Theodore Beza, found at: http://books.google.com/books?id=6z4DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295&dq=Thomas+Cranmer&output=text#c_top

LETTER XVII—CALVIN TO CRANMER, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, Wishes Health.

Illustrious Sir,

You prudently judge, that in this confused state of the church, no remedy more appropriate can be applied, than that pious and resolute men, exercised in the school of God, should meet among themselves, and publicly profess their agreement in the doctrines of religion. We see by how many arts satan is endeavouring to destroy the light of the gospel, which has arisen by the wonderful goodness of God, and is extending its beams in every direction. The mercenary parasites of the pope do not cease their railing, to prevent the preaching of the pure word of Christ . Licentiousness so much prevails, and impiety has so increased, that religion is but a little removed from public mockery. Those who are not the professed enemies of the gospel are even now affected by that lascivious impudence, which will shortly, unless counteracted, produce among us the most shameful confusion. It is not merely among the ignorant class of men, that this feverish and foolish curiosity and immoderate impudence reign; but what is more shameful,it is much too prevalent among the order of pastors. It is too well known, with what delusive madness Osiander deceives himself, and fascinates some others. The Lord, indeed, as he has done from the beginning of the world, can wonderfully, in ways unknown to us, preserve the unity of the true faith, and prevent its destruction from the dissensions of men. It is his will however, that those whom he has appointed to watch should by no means sleep; as he has determined, by the labours of his ministering servants, to purge the pure doctrine in the church, from all corruptions, and to transmit it unblemished to posterity. It is especially your duty, most accomplished Prelate, as you sit more elevated in the watch-tower, to continue your exertions for effecting this object. I do not say this, to stimulate you afresh; you have already, of your own accord, preceded others, and voluntarily exhorted them to follow your steps. I would only confirm you in this auspicious and distinguished labour by my congratulation. We have heard of the delightful success of the gospel in England. I doubt not, but you have experienced the same trials, which Paul met with in his time: that the door being opened for the pure doctrine, many adversaries suddenly rise up against its reception. I know you have among you many advocates, capable of refuting the falsehoods of the adversary; but still, the wickedness of those, who exert all their arts to make disturbance, proves that the most intense sedulity of the good will neither be too ardent nor superfluous. I know moreover, that your purpose is not confined to England alone; but, at the same moment, you consult the benefit of all the world. The generous disposition and uncommon piety of his Majesty, the king, are justly to be admired, as he is pleased to favour this holy purpose of holding such a council, and offers a place for its session in his kingdom. I wish it might be effected, that learned and stable men, from the principal churches, might assemble in some place, and, after discussing with care each article of faith, deliver to posterity, from their general opinion of them all, the clear doctrines of the Scriptures. It is to be numbered among the evils of our day, that the churches are so divided one from another, that there is scarcely any friendly intercourse strengthened between us ; much less does that holy communion of the members of Christ flourish, which all profess with the mouth, but few sincerely regard in the heart. But if the principal teachers conduct themselves more coldly than they ought, it is principally the fault of the princes who, involved in their secular concerns, neglect the prosperity and purity of the church; or each one, contented with his own security, is indifferent to the welfare of others. Thus it comes to pass, that the members being divided, the body of the church lies disabled. Respecting myself, if it should appear that I could render any service, I should with pleasure cross ten seas, if necessary, to accomplish that object. Even if the benefit of the kingdom of England only was to be consulted, it would furnish a reason sufficiently powerful with me. But as in the council proposed, the object is to obtain the firm and united agreement of learned men to the sound rule of Scripture, by which churches now divided may be united with each other, I think it would be a crime in me to spare any labour or trouble to effect it. But I expect my slender ability to accomplish this will furnish me with sufficient excuse. If I aid that object by my prayers, which will be undertaken by others, I shall discharge my part of the business. Melancthon is so far from me, that our letters cannot be exchanged in a short time. Bullinger has perhaps answered you before this. I wish my ability was equal to the ardency of my desires. But what I at first declined, as unable to accomplish, I perceive the very necessity of the business now compels me to attempt. I not only exhort you, but I conjure you, to proceed, until something shall be effected, if not every thing you could wish. Farewell, most accomplished Prelate, sincerely respected by me. May the Lord go on to guide you by his Spirit, and bless your holy labours.

Geneva.

LETTER XVI--THOMAS CRANMER TO CALVIN

From The Life of Calvin by Theodore Beza, found at: http://books.google.com/books?id=6z4DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA295&dq=Thomas+Cranmer&output=text#c_top

LETTER XVI. THOMAS CRANMER TO CALVIN

As nothing tends more to separate the churches of God than heresies and differences about the doctrines of religion, so nothing more effectually unites them, and fortifies more powerfully the fold of Christ, than the uncorrupted doctrine of the gospel* and union in received opinions. I have often wished, and now wish, that those learned and pious men, who excel others in erudition and judgment, would assemble in some convenient place, where holding a mutual consultation, and comparing their opinions, they might discuss all the heads of ecclesiastical doctrine, and agree not only concerning the things themselves, but the forms of expression, and deliver to posterity some work, with the weight of their authority. Our adversaries are now holding their council at Trent, that they may establish their errors. And shall we neglect to call together a pious synod, that we may be able to refute their errors, and to purify and propagate the true doctrines? They, as I hear, are making decrees about the worship of the bread. We ought therefore to make every effort, not only to fortify others against this idolatry, but that we also ourselves might agree on the doctrine of this sacrament. How much the dissensions and variety of opinions, about this sacrament of union, weaken the church of God, cannot escape your prudence. Although these differences may, in some places, be removed, yet I wish an agreement in this doctrine, not only about the things themselves, but also about the words and forms of expression. You have my ardent wishes, concerning which I have written to Melancthon and Bullinger, and I beg you to deliberate among yourselves, in what manner this synod can most conveniently be assembled. Farewell, Your most beloved brother in Christ,

THOMAS, of Canterbury.

Lambeth, March 20,1552.

1 Dec 1539: Calvin about Luther

We bring a footnote from Philip Schaff’s Creeds of Christendom, Vol. 1, 431. We have been over this before, but this time we draw attention Calvin's letter to Farel on 1 December 1539. Bad blood existed between the Lutherans and the Swiss. It was ten years old and went back to the Marbury Colloquy of 1529. Bullinger was unamused with Luther. Calvin played the mediator with Bullinger and Farel. (Zwingli had been dead for over eight years at this point.)

Here’s Schaff’s footnote.

"2 Luther wrote to Bucer: `Greet Calvin, whose little works I have read with remarkable pleasure;' and Melancthon on Calvin wrote: `Calvin is in high favor here (magnam gratiam iniit).' See Calvin to Farel 1 Dec . 1539; Stahelin, Vol. I. p. 226; and De Wette's edition of Luther's letters, Vol. V. p. Calvin wrote to Bullinger, when the latter was provoked by the last rude assault of Luther upon the Zwinglians (1544): 'I implore you never to forget how great a man Luther is, and by what extraordinary gifts he excels. Think with what courage, what constancy, what power and success he has devoted himself to this day to the overthrow of the reign of Antichrist and the spreading of the doctrine of salvation far and near. As for me, I have often said, and I say it again, though he should call me a devil, I would still give him due honor, and recognize him, in spite of the great faults which obscure his extraordinary virtues, as a mighty servant of the Lord.' See Henry, Vol. II. "

1552 Book of Common Prayer-Three Proximate Causes

Three Causes of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer, England’s Worship Manual by the Rev. Donald Philip Veitch

The English Reformation of the 16th century was an epochal event in Western Civilization with as many causes as there were effects. Although beyond the present scope, this reformation of the 1300-year old Church of England had deep antecedents in the 15th century with serious consequences for 16th-17th century England and America. By dint of demand—the width of this subject—the focus is narrowed to the 1552 Book of Common Prayer edited by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer and associates. This Book of Common Prayer, by decree of King and Parliament, became the “worship book” imposed on approximately eight-nine thousand English parishes. This 1552 BCP in its slightly edited 1662 version—very slight—would be used throughout worldwide Anglicanism until the 1960’s. Travel anywhere during this 400-year period, attend an Anglican service, and it would be the same, whether in London, Nigeria or Sydney, Australia. This BCP, a comprehensive and government-ordered “book of prayers” for the national church, shaped English doctrine, worship and piety until the mid-twentieth century. Amongst a plethora of causes for this book, attention is directed to three proximate causes that shaped the 1552 Book of Common Prayer. Those three proximate causes of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer were: 1000 years of history preceding 1552 BCP, the Continental Reformation, and Cranmer’s desire to educate England in the best of the past with a view to future generations.

The first cause in our three-fold thread of causes for the 1552 Book of Common Prayer was one thousand years of a history predating this worship manual. “Prayer Books,” called Missals during this period, were centuries-old and were used throughout Western nations in churches, schools, convents and monasteries. This is difficult to appreciate, to wit, 1000 years of preceding history; many American Churchmen think the Church began on their own home turf, with their own religious experience or with the American colonies, but European and English history is recalibrative. Englishmen had been in the Roman fold of Western Christendom since the Synod of Whitby, 662 C.E., the period of transition from Celtic to Roman Christianity. For centuries, English families were accustomed to liturgical worship that was ordered, directed, read and written services—again, as the “work of worship.” (Liturgy means "work," the work of worship--hearing, focussing, concentrating, learning and responding, not therapy and entertainment.) Unified liturgical patterns dominated English hamlets, villages and cities with variations, e.g. the York, Sarum, and Salisbury Missals. But essentially, a national, unified, ordered, written, historic and governing worship pattern prevailed. By contrast, for better or worse, American Protestants—with their love of revivalism, spontaneity, independence, individualism and their 19th-20th century creed, “No Creed but Christ”— have difficulty appreciating ordered, disciplined and written liturgies. Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Anabaptists,, Pentecostaliststs and other enthusiasts have opposed written liturgies as a matter of principle. “Too repressive,” “too restrictive,” “spiritually dead,” “too controlling,” “too traditional,” and “too heavy” are the remonstrations from many American quarters. “Who can pray a written prayer?” is often heard. For Archbishop Cranmer and conservative Reformers in England, however, 1000 years of liturgical worship was the cause to retain rather than to dispose of liturgy, order, and direction. If there was to be revision of the old Prayer Book, it would be conservative, not radical. As an editor, Cranmer would not “throw the baby out with the wash.” It was inconceivable that non-liturgical worship would be left to the discretion of individual clerics or church members. As an historian and theologian, Cranmer would not “reinvent the wheel.” Individualism and “worship freedom” was not—quite simply—within Cranmer’s worldview. Hence, the English Reformer retained and revised a “book” of worship, the 1552 BCP, in the consciousness of 1000 years preceding it—requiring a “liturgical” pattern. This is why the Church of England has always claimed to be a church of history and ancient traditions—with its “reformed” Prayer Book.

The second cause in the three-fold strand of causes for the reformed 1552 Book of Common Prayer was the Continental Reformation that had begun in Germany and Switzerland from 1517 to 1552. If Cranmer retained and revised the book of worship with its 1000-year pedigree and with his consciousness of that pedigree, Cranmer nonetheless would edit the Prayer Book with Reformation insights. It is a fair to say that Luther’s Reformation in Germany became, over time, England’s. It is also fair to say that the Swiss Reformers, e.g. Zwingli, Vermigli, Bucer, Coverdale, Calvin, and others preceded and influenced the English Reformation. By turns, the Continental Reformation influenced Cranmer’s theology and, by more turns in a complex process, would shape the revised and reformed 1552 Book of Common Prayer.

In expanding on this second cause—the Continental Reformation—there were at least two lasting results for the revised 1552 BCP: vernacular worship and a Lutheran-Calvinistic product. Briefly touching on these two effects will emphasize this second cause—the larger Reformation as a cause for revision.

The first effect—for emphasis on the second cause above—was an English Prayer Book, English Bible, and English worship. The vernacular Bible was the order of the day. The transition is also hard for Americans to understand—the switch from Latin to English worship. For centuries, Latin services were conducted. Martin Luther had translated the Latin Bible into German in 1519—for use in the churches. Luther began conducting worship in German. William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale, two contemporaries of Cranmer, had translated the Bible into English. Zwingli of Switzerland was using the German Bible as well as German liturgies. The printing presses were rolling. Initially, England was behind the power curve in terms of the Continental Reformation thanks to Henry VIII, but eventually caught up. The Reformation result? Cranmer’s 1552 Book of Common Prayer, an English Prayer Book, an English Bible, and English worship—England and the West was never the same.

A second effect—illustrative of the second cause of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer—was a Lutheran-Calvinistic theology blended with the gems of 1000 years before it. Lutheran literature was getting reviews at Oxford, but most notably at Cambridge. One thinks of the famous “White Horse Inn” at Cambridge where scholars gathered to discuss Luther’s tracts and books—usually over a few pints of ale. Although Cranmer was a Cambridge don during the 1520’s, he was a late-comer to Lutheran and Calvinist perspectives. Early in his career, he was anti-Lutheran. By 1552, however, with much water under the bridge, he had passed from a Lutheran phase to a Calvinistic one. Calvin’s books were also being read at Cambridge. Cranmer—ever judicious and ever cautious as the scholarly marginalia indicates in his books—moved slowly. After Henry VIII died 1547 and his Protestant son ascended to the throne, Edward VI, the mature Cranmer—Lutheran at points, but decisively Calvinistic by 1550—brought Reformation insights to the reformed Prayer Book. The old prayer book was pruned of sacerdotalism, priest-craft, invocation of saints, patron saints, pilgrimages, relics-worship (sources of large revenues, e.g. Walsingham Shrine), worship of Mary, Roman supremacy in doctrine, purgatory, Masses, transubstantiation, and works-based salvation, to mention a few leading matters. Acknowledging these Reformation influences, some have said correctly that the 1552 Book of Common Prayer was a via media, a mid-way point between Wittenberg (Luther) and Geneva (Calvin). In this reviewer’s view, the BCP was a Calvinistic chick laid by a Lutheran egg. The 1552 BCP was a Protestant and Reformed effect, “caused” by the Continental Reformation.

Having illustrated two effects arising from the second cause—the Reformation as a cause for 1552 Book of Common Prayer—and in returning to the three-fold string of causes, the third cause for the 1552 Book of Common Prayer was Cranmer’s desire to educate England—all eight-nine thousand churches—in the best of the past with a view to the education of future generations. As noted, Cranmer was conscious of the 1000-year history of the Church of England. He was a Cambridge don who studied the church fathers and knew the classics. He conserved the best prayers, hymns and lections from the earlier Gallican and Roman liturgies. He retained such historic gems as the Te Deum Laudamus, Benedicite Omnia Opera (retaining the Latin hymn titles, yet with these two hymns in English), and numerous prayers of the classics, e.g. St. Chrysostom’s General Thanksgiving. As an educated Churchman—as all the Reformers were, he knew the Bible and history well enough to see the divergences between the theology and worship patterns of the early church (100 C.E.-500 C.E.) and those of the late medieval church (1000 C.E.-1550 C.E.) Without tossing the best, Cranmer brought doctrine and worship back to the earliest centuries of the church. But, as noted, he did this with an English Prayer Book and Engish Bible readings. While the rank and file Churchman was illiterate, they understood English. In fact, this is the reason for the word “Common” in the title, The Book of “Common” Prayer. Cranmer fully believed that congregations—in time—could learn, “read” the prayers (“reading” does not mean “not praying”), hear, think, and worship “in common.” Rightly, Cranmer believed that England’s literacy would rise with congregational involvement—and it did. As a nation’s Chief Pastor and educator, Cranmer’s 1552 Book of Common Prayer was a nationwide program to educate England in the best of the past with a view to future generations.

This transformative event called the English Reformation had antecedents in the 15th century with enormous consequences for 16th-17th century England. Given the scope of the subject, the focus was narrowed to The 1552 Book of Common Prayer. By decree of King and Parliament, this “worship book” was imposed on a nation, shaping its doctrine, worship and piety until the mid-twentieth century. Amongst many causes, three were cited: 1000 years of previous history, the Reformation on the continent (two effects were cited to illustrate this point), and Cranmer’s desire to educate England in the best of the past while pastorally shepherding future generations. Just as there were many causes for this classic Book of Common Prayer, of which three were named—there were many other consequences, one of which was democracy. But that story--democracy--is for another day.