15 January 1572 A.D. Jeanne D’Albret’s Orders &
Decrees—Reformed Royalty: Queen of Navarre, Franco-Spanish Border
Reformed Royalty: The Strength of Queen Jeanne d'Albret
Marilyn B. Manzer
The Queen of Navarre
stood steadfast for the Reformed faith, even in the midst of great compromise
"My grace is sufficient
for thee: for my strength is made perfect in weakness" (2 Cor. 12:9).
Jeanne d'Albret
(1528-1572), though little remembered today, is one of the great heroes of the
French Reformation. Luther had posted his ninety-five theses in Germany years before,
Calvin was preaching in Switzerland, and Knox in Scotland, and Jeanne d'Albret
was furthering the cause of the Huguenots in France. Strength and weakness,
power and helplessness -- these extremes characterized the life of so
remarkable a woman. She did not possess physical strength. In fact, always
frail, she died of tuberculosis at the age of forty-four. She did have some
political strength as the highest ranking Protestant in France, but beyond
that, she possessed a strength of will and a strength of character that held
her up when she seemed the most helpless. Above all, however, was her reliance
on God and the strength of His power to preserve her which bolstered her beyond
measure when her situation seemed the most hopeless.
Early Life
First there was Jeanne's
political strength -- or potential political strength, anyway. She was born in
1528, the only child of Henry d'Albret and Marguerite of Navarre. Her father,
Henry d'Albret, Vicomte de Bearn, King of Navarre, held the small kingdom of
Bearn near the Spanish border. Although the family called themselves
"kings" of Navarre, "only the rump of that kingdom remained in
their hands since Ferdinand of Aragon had conquered the larger portion to the
south in 1512."[1] Henry was always working to regain this lost territory.
He was an extremely well liked ruler, forthright, equitable, skillfully
handling the grievances of his subjects.
Jeanne's mother was Marguerite
de Valois, Queen of Navarre, the sister and devoted companion of no less than
Francis I, King of France. Marguerite herself is a fascinating character.
Prominent not only at the court, but throughout Europe, she "occupied an
influential position in the intellectual movement of the day"[2] by speaking out against the abuses of Roman Catholicism.
"Marguerite was intensely interested in humanistic studies, was deeply
religious, was strongly impressed by Luther and Calvin... [but] while
dissenting from much in the Roman Catholic Church, never became a
Protestant."[3] In Bearn she granted asylum to Protestants persecuted in
France, and on more than one occasion used her influence with her brother to
keep them from harm.
Regarding Jeanne herself,
little is known of her childhood. She spent her first nine years in Lornay in
the Norman countryside. Although not in the limelight with her mother at court,
Jeanne's upbringing was far from humble. She was under the care of some twenty
servants, ranging from a tutor to a groom and three footmen to a pastry-maker.
Concerning her education, again, although little is known, the typical child of
French nobility would have been brought up in the literature of his own country
as well as of the Latin authors. Beyond that, " [t]here is no doubt that
Marguerite's daughter was given an education designed to implement the humanist
ideal, that is, the development of both character and intellect through
absorption of the classic writings which were the models for the
Renaissance."[4] Jeanne was sensitive and learned quickly. She had a keen
intellect which, coupled with a strong spirit, would later cause her opponents
no end of trouble.
At the age of nine, Jeanne
was moved closer to the court. Up to this point, she had experienced only the
benefits of her position, but she was soon to feel the helplessness within it.
Henry, always seeking to restore the Spanish Navarre, was seeking a marriage
between his daughter and the King of Spain's son, Philip. The King of France,
however, hoped to use Jeanne in his own foreign policy. After years of
negotiations, a marriage contact was drawn up between Jeanne and Germany's Duke
of Cleaves.
And it is in this
betrothal that the strength of Jeanne's will first (historically) asserts
itself. Even after her parents had resigned themselves to the King's wishes,
Jeanne strongly protested the marriage. She complained bitterly to all, even
writing a formal letter of protest to the King, but to no avail. Finally in
June of 1541 at the age of twelve, she was wed. "The Princess wore a
golden crown, a cloak of crimson satin trimmed with ermine, and a gold and
silver skirt trimmed with precious stones"[5] and had to be taken by the collar and carried forcibly
to the altar.
Their union was to last
only about three and a half years. The alliance with Germany became unpopular,
the marriage, therefore, was no longer necessary, and an annulment was easily
obtained in 1545 on the ground that the marriage had never been consummated,
that it had been made under Jeanne's compulsion and against her pro-testations.[6]
Marriage to Antoine de
Bourbon
Three years later Jeanne
was again the pawn in a political alliance. Her father was again seeking a
compact between her and the Spanish Prince Philip, but again, the King of
France, now Henry II, had other plans. To help consolidate the territories in
the north and south of France, Jeanne was wed in 1549 to Antoine de Bourbon,
Duc de Vendome, First Prince of the Blood. Although just as helpless in
deciding her fate, this time she had no complaints. "Antoine was a dashing
cavalier, handsome, courageous, affable, gracious, altogether charming."[7] He was recognized by all as a remarkable soldier and
general. He was very close in line to the succession of the French throne. What
more could Jeanne want?
The two lived happily for
many years. She bore two children, Henry and Catherine. As they ruled in Bearn,
Jeanne proved to have her father's skill in administration and maintained great
popularity among her subjects.
Religion was to cause
their breech. Religion was the impetus to show Jeanne's strength yet again,
this time her strength of character. Calvinism had been spreading throughout
France from the mid 1530's to the 1550's. The Reformers insisted that they were
not bringing in a new gospel but returning to the gospel preached by the
apostles. They challenged the people to open their Bibles and to prove it to
themselves. Ministers were sent from Geneva, and, despite the work of the
Counter Reformation, the number of French Protestants was increasing daily.
Despite legislation, "they held their prayer meetings, fed on solemn
sermons preaching predestination, issued a fire of pamphlets on the abuses of
the Church...and held a general synod in Paris (May 26, 1559) under the very
nose of the King."[8]
The new King, Charles IX,
was a minor, and so the Queen Mother, Catherine de Medici was named regent. Her
sympathies seemed to be with the reform, as well. She had listened to those
whom Calvin had sent and even allowed Protestant services alternated with
Masses in the Royal Chapel. Calvinism was in vogue at court. Nobles brought the
ministers into their own apartments to preach. And support from the nobility
was exactly what the Calvinists needed if the movement in France was to be
considered anything more than a rebellion. "If the Reform won the
aristocracy, it would have a nation-wide power at its back."[9]
Conversion to Calvinism
Antoine and Jeanne
listened to the reformers. Indeed, Jeanne had heard them all her life because
of her mother's interest in the "new teachings." As early as 1555
Jeanne showed her leanings towards Calvinism in a letter to the Victomte de
Gourdon. " [A] reform seems so right and so necessary that, for my part, I
consider that it would be disloyalty and cowardice to God, to my conscience,
and to my people to remain any longer in a state of suspense and
indecision."[10]
While still officially
Roman Catholic, Antoine and Jeanne attended sermons preached by the ministers
of Geneva. Upon visiting Bearn, one such minister reported to Calvin,
"Preaching is open -- in public. The streets resound to the chanting of
the Psalms. Religious books are sold as freely and openly at home."[11] Jeanne's conversion was not publicly announced until
Christmas Day, 1560. Once she had made a public profession, however, Jeanne
never looked back. "For the remaining twelve years of her life she would
be singled out as an enemy by the most powerful movement in Europe, the Counter
Reformation."[12]
The passage of time showed
that Antoine did not really share in Jeanne's zeal for reform. In fact, what
time did show was Antoine's inconsistency, his constant vacillating. He was
notoriously unfaithful in his marriage, and in all else as well. It became
increasingly obvious that his religious views were contingent on his chances
for political gain. Catholic or Protestant, he would go back and forth in
deciding which might afford him the greatest advantage. After the death of
Jeanne's father, Antoine took up the effort to recover the Spanish Navarre.
Also, as First Prince of the Blood, he and his heirs stood to gain the throne
of France if he proceeded with care. When the Huguenots seemed to be gaining,
he would join their offensive; when the Catholics had the upperhand, he would
withdraw. At last, threatened and coaxed in turn by Spain, the Papacy, and
finally the French court, he renounced all dealings with the reformers and
declared himself once and for all a Roman Catholic. The gravity of this stand
cannot be overstated. Besides his royal ties, Antoine was France's Lieutenant
General and was known for his amazing military prowess, but he lacked the
vision to see beyond his own ambitions. "Antoine's reversal shifted the
balance. Had he, the First Prince of the Blood, made himself at the juncture
the head of the Huguenot party, Calvinism might have become the religion of
France."[13]
It is necessary at this
point to say a few words about France's foreign and domestic affairs during
this period. The royal families of France and Spain (the Valois and Hapsburg
respectively) had been in constant rivalry since the 1490's. The country of
France was slowly led to bankruptcy in a series of wars that had lasted well
through the 1540's. An uncomfortable peace ensued. The financial status caused
great dissatisfaction, to the point of threats of a civil war among the French
people. The spread of Calvinism brought into the country still more unrest.
Catherine had now to deal not only with the threat of a Spanish invasion but
with the displeasure of the Papacy, as well. Beginning in November of 1561 the
Catholics issued their counter-attack. "From Parisian pulpits inflammatory
sermons aroused the congregations against the royal family and the crown's
officers as well as the Huguenots....Destruction of Huguenot property,
assassination, and other violent incidents were occurring all over
France."[14] The Papacy also let it be known that it lent its support
to the King of Spain. Though sympathetic to the reform, Catherine's first
priority was to keep control of France.
Antoine's Betrayal
Antoine and Jeanne were at
court when Antoine at last sided with the Roman Catholics. Many nobles followed
his lead. This, in turn, forced Catherine's hand. She reinstated conservative
Catholic tutors for Charles IX, forbade discussion of Calvinist doctrine, and
her lenience towards those arrested for religious reasons ceased. Still more
nobles placed themselves within the Roman camp.
Jeanne, however, could not
be dissuaded. Her conversion had been motivated by neither politics nor
fashion, and she would not bend. The strength of her will, this time put into
service for God, was unflinching. While others cowered back to the Mass, Jeanne
had Protestant services in her apartments "with all the doors open"
as exasperated observers pointed out.[15] Others followed Antoine's lead, but Jeanne called to him
to remember the true teaching they had received. Antoine demanded that she go
to Mass, but Jeanne flatly refused. "When the Queen Mother tried to
persuade her to accommodate her husband, she finally replied, rather than ever
go to Mass, if she held her kingdom and her son in her hand, she would throw
them both to the bottom of the sea. This was the reason they then left her in peace
on the matter."[16]
As fellow Calvinists saw
the price Jeanne was paying for her stand, her strength strengthened them.
Already suffering from tuberculosis, she was so ill at this time (1562) that
doctors were unsure if she could recover. Antoine had made her all but a
prisoner in her apartments, had taken away their son, and was threatening
divorce. Finally, both Antoine and Catherine wanted her out of Paris. Catherine
had even promised that after Jeanne's departure, no Protestant services would
be permitted at court.[17] This in itself should speak of Jeanne's influence. On
March 6, 1562, Jeanne left Paris to return to Bearn. She left without her son
(she was permitted to say goodbye and to enjoin him never to go to Mass), still
very ill, and under fear of being kidnapped along the way.
Jeanne as Supreme Regent
In April 1562, the first
civil war (the first of three that would occur in Jeanne's lifetime) broke out
while Jeanne was still en
route to Bearn. The Huguenots were under the command of the Prince
de Conde and Admiral Gaspard de Coligny. The Catholics were led by the Duke de
Guise. Jeanne herself was not involved in this or the second civil war, but
rather concentrated her efforts on her own kingdom. Upon her return,
"Jeanne devoted herself primarily to local administration and to foster
the Reformed faith in her domain."[18] She could not escape the war's impact, however. First,
being so close to Spain, she needed to prepare herself with military defense.
Secondly, some months into the war, Antoine had been wounded fighting on the
Catholic side. Although Antoine had summoned his mistress in his convalescence,
when word of his injury reached Jeanne, she immediately made herself ready to
go nurse him. But the infection spread, and Antoine died before Jeanne could
obtain permission to enter enemy lines.
Antoine's death forced the
surrounding powers to deal with Jeanne directly. Her son was still to be a
hostage at court for the next four years, but she was able to reinstate
Protestant tutors for the boy to oversee his education. Her husband's death
also put her in sole control of Bearn, and she worked with great energy,
against great obstacles, to strengthen and reform her domain. "Her
reorganization of the economic and judicial system was so sound it remained in
force well into the 18th century."[19] Theodore Beza, Calvin's right hand man in her request,
sent her more than a dozen ministers to preach the gospel. Laws were passed to
protect these ministers, she abolished public processions, purified the
churches of images, and suppressed the Mass in some parts of her kingdom. A
synod was formed and there were plans for a Protestant Academy. Her
achievements led one reformer to say of her, "The Queen of Navarre has
banished all idolatry from her domains and sets an example of virtue with
incredible firmness and courage."[20]
Meanwhile, the King of
Spain, now Philip II (the same Philip to whom her father had hoped to marry
Jeanne), tried to persuade her to marry one of his sons. Ironically, the union
with the Spanish royal family that her father had so wanted in the past would
now have cost Jeanne everything -- her kingdom, her independence, and her
faith. She saw this but felt compelled to reopen the negotiations with Spain
that had stopped at her husband's death. Sending an ambassador, Philip demanded
she cast aside her religious policy, calling it evil and threatening that he
would not tolerate Calvinism "so near to his subjects." The
ambassador related Jeanne's reply, characteristically sharp when she was
provoked. "Although I am just a little Princess, God has given me the
government of this country so I may rule it according to His Gospel and teach
it His Laws. I rely on God, who is more powerful than the King of Spain."[21] Philip's reply is menacing. "This is quite too much
of a woman to have as a daughter-in-law. I would much prefer to destroy her and
treat her as such an evil woman deserves."[22] Quite too much of a woman, indeed.
The Papacy, too sought
Jeanne. Pious IV sent his own ambassador and his own set of threats. She was
warned that her subjects would not stand for reform, that Spain would not stand
for it. She was ordered to restore the churches and to cast off the heresies
that he for a time "seduced" her. She was implored "with tears
to return to the true fold."[23] Her reply did little to hide her annoyance, "You
appeal to your authority as the Pope's legate. The authority of the Pope's
legate is not recognized in Bearn. Keep your tears for yourself. Out of charity
I might contribute a few."[24] There followed a plot to kidnap her and deliver her the
the Inquisition in Spain. She was summoned to appear in Rome upon penalty of
excommunication, confiscation of goods, and a declaration that her lands would
be open to the first taker.
This last claim troubled
Philip of Spain who did not want just anyone to take over Navarre. It made
Catherine furious. She resented the Papacy's presumption in disciplining Jeanne
over the head of France. It was a dangerous game Jeanne was playing, pitting
the larger powers against one another while her kingdom and her life were held
in the balance. Meanwhile, she continued with her reform. There were plans to
carry out "the total suppression of idolatry." The Calvinist Academy
became a reality and ecclesiastical wealth was confiscated and given to the
poor.
Spain and the Papacy were
up in arms. "It was disturbing enough that John Knox had created a
Calvinist establishment in Scotland, but if it were allowed to develop in
Bearn, it might spread throughout France, a far more serious challenge to the
church."[25] They put pressure on Catherine, Catherine put pressure
on Jeanne, Jeanne was evasive. She had returned to court for a time to appease
Catherine who was confident of her powers to control people near her. Reform
went on in Bearn in spite of Jeanne's absence. She was able to return with her
son Henry, at last.
Fleeing Navarre to Greater
Service
When the third civil war
broke out in 1568, Jeanne could no longer concern herself with her domains
alone. Catherine could no longer protect her because a moderate faction no longer
seemed to exist. Jeanne's life was now threatened by Spanish and French
Catholic troops. She and her son took flight to La Rochelle, the Protestant
stronghold and threw in their lot with Coligny, Conde and the other French
Protestants.
It is in La Rochelle that
the strength of Jeanne's service to her God -- and His strength at work through
her -- is best seen. While staying in touch as best she could be with Bearn,
she also proved invaluable to the Huguenot cause. As Minister of Propaganda,
she wrote manifestoes and requests for aid to foreign princes.[26] Under her direction fell such concerns in La Rochelle as
"finances, fortifications, discipline (except in the army), and, in part,
intelligence."[27] She contributed her wealth, even offering her jewels as
security in foreign loans. She supervised the care of the tens of thousands of
refugees that poured into the city. She did not confine herself within the
city's walls, however. At even critical points in the fighting, she would
accompany Coligny, inspecting the defences and rallying troops. When one
Huguenot captain, La Noue, hesitated to have his arm amputated after it had
been crushed, Jeanne held his hand in support during the surgery and was
praised for the care she took of him in his recovery.
A college was established
in La Rochelle under direction, to be "a seminary of piety and a center
for the education of the holy ministry."[28] She brought to it some of the most learned men of the
Reform. The better part of their salaries was paid by Jeanne herself. She was
working at such a frenzied pace, perhaps realizing that she did not have long
to live. Her body grew weaker, but her determination was stronger than ever.
Jeanne was at her height;
the Huguenot cause was at its height. It offered its terms of peace. Jeanne
wrote to both the King and the Queen Mother, but when the terms were denied and
the Huguenots were told that the condition of peace was that they lay down
absolutely all their arms, Jeanne answered, "We have come to the
determination to die, all of us, rather than to abandon our God, and our
religion, the which we cannot maintain unless permitted to worship publicly,
any more than a human body can live without meat and drink."[29] At last the Peace of St. Germain was signed by Charles
IX in August of 1570, granting the Huguenots more than they had ever before
been granted: "freedom of worship except in Paris or near the court, full
eligibility to public office, and, as guarantee that these terms would be
honored in practice, the right to hold four cities under their independent rule
for two years."[30]
Peace was uneasy. The
Catholics were outraged by the King's concession. Charles was himself trying to
assert his independence from his mother, and under Coligny's council was
considering war with Spain in an attempt to unify his people. Catherine had her
own plans for unity. She suggested the marriage of Henry of Navarre to her
daughter Marguerite. This would unite the Bourbon and Valois families, it would
unite Jeanne and Catherine, Protestant and Catholic, it would unite France.
Both factions had strong supporters of the marriage, each side thinking it had
the most to gain. Other Protestants were quite critical. Jeanne herself was in
agony. She greatly feared that her son would return to Catholicism, and that
would break her heart. On the other hand, she feared for France and took it to
heart when it was suggested that her stubbornness in the matter would be at the
cost of the Reform.
She arrived in Paris in
January 1572 to begin what would be months of negotiations concerning the
marriage. Horrified upon her arrival by the court's decadence, she wrote to her
son:
[Marguerite] is beautiful,
discreet, and graceful, but she has grown up in the most vicious and corrupt
atmosphere imaginable. I cannot see that anyone escapes its poison... Not for
anything on earth would I have you live here. Therefore I wish you to be
married and to retire -- with your wife -- from this corruption. Although I
knew it was bad, I find it even worse than I feared.... If you were here you
wold never escape without a special intervention from God...
You have doubtless
realized that their main object, my son, is to separate you from God, and from
me...you can understand my anxiety for you.... I beg you, pray to God. [31]
Feeling herself powerless
to stop the marriage, Jeanne nevertheless made certain demands. "She
insisted that Cardinal de Bourbon should perform the ceremony, not as a priest
but as a prince, not in a church but outside it, and that Henry should not
accompany his wife into the Church to hear Mass."[32] Catherine reluctantly agreed.
Jeanne's Death
Jeanne had been in poor
health for year, but when she collapsed on June 4, 1572 on her way back from a
shopping trip, everyone was surprised. Both enemies and friends had thought her
unstoppable. She lay in ever-increasing pain for four days. Her ministers were
permitted to attend her, constantly in prayer, reading at her request Psalm 31
and John, chapters 14 through 18, exhorting her, and reminding her of God's
mercy to the faithful. Having fought all her life, she did not have the
strength to fight any longer. She resigned herself and prayed, "O God, my
Father, deliver me from this body of death and from the miseries of this life,
that I may commit no further offenses against Thee and that I may enjoy the
felicity Thou hast promised me."[33] She died on June 9, 1572.
Jeanne's story, like those
of all great men and women, does not end at her death. While Spain and the
Papacy rejoiced, the Huguenots felt a terrible loss, finding comfort only in
the fact that she was with her Lord.
Subsequent Tragedies
One wonders if Jeanne
could have prevented the remaining events of 1572 had she been alive. The
marriage of Henry and Marguerite went on as planned on August 18th. All of
Jeanne's demands for the ceremony were kept. Tension filled Paris as the most
powerful Protestant and Catholic leaders were present for the festivities.
Catherine saw her chance to suppress the Huguenots once and for all, thus
regaining some favor with the Catholic forces. Six days after the wedding
Catherine sanctioned the brutal, brutal assassination of Coligny and the other
six Huguenot leaders on August 24th, St. Bartholomew's Day. This was only the
beginning of a weeklong slaughter of Huguenots in Paris and the provinces. The
total number of deaths estimated in the Massacre of St. Bartholomew ranges from
5,000 to 30,000.[34]
Many French Protestants accepted
conversion rather than death but later renounced the oaths made under duress.
Within two months of the massacre the fourth civil war broke out, and La
Rochelle and other towns were resisting siege. "On July 6, 1573, Charles
signed the Peace of La Rochelle, guaranteeing the Huguenots religious liberty.
Politically the massacre had accomplished nothing."[35]
One wonders also if Jeanne
could have prevented some of Henry's future dealings had she been alive.
Catherine had protected him against the massacre, forcing him, however to
return to Catholicism. For almost four years he was again all but captive at
court, but in February of 1576 he made his escape. "His first act, once
clear of pursuing royal forces, was to return to his mother's faith; the second
to rally the weakened followers of her Cause, and the third, to restore her
legislation in the kingdom he had inherited from her."[36] Henry III succeeded Charles IX. When Henry III was
assassinated, Henry of Navarre suddenly became Henry IV of France. He remained
a Calvinist for four years after becoming King, but at the end of the fifth,
sixth, and seventh civil wars, he returned once again to the Catholic church.
He saw no other way to unite France. Known for his dry wit, he is reported to
have quipped that "Paris was worth a mass." Jeanne surely would have
disagreed. Although his Edict of Nantes (1598) fulfilled all of the demands for
which Jeanne and the Huguenots had fought, he proved in his personal as well as
political life that he was merely sympathetic to and not a part of the Reform.
These last events -- The
Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Henry's religious pliability, and the ultimate
failure of the French Reformation -- are a sad epilogue to Jeanne's story.
Because they come here at the end, they seem to overshadow the great events of
her life. They really cannot overshadow her, however. She gave all to her God
-- her wealth, health, kingdom, and life, her heart, soul, strength, and mind
-- for the furtherance of His gospel. History bears out the fact that Calvinism
reached its height in France from about 1559-1572, those years in which Jeanne
was a part of the movement. And she left behind a great legacy, first to her
own kingdom, where, she would say, "God has always granted me the grace to
preserve this little corner of Bearn, where, little by little, good increases
and evil diminishes."[37] Her legislation and reform in Bearn outlived her by
many, many years. But she has left behind a legacy to all those of the reformed
faith who find in the memory of her service to God the sufficiency of His
strength.
Notes
[1] Nancy Lyman Roelker, Queen
of Navarre: Jeanne d'Albret, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1968), p. 5.
[3] Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christianity, (New York: Harper
and Row Publishers, 1953) p. 766.
[6] Roland H. Bainton, Women
of the Reformation in France and England, (Minneapolis: Ausburg
Publishing House, 1973) p. 44.7.7"
[8] Will and Ariel Durant, The Age of Reason Begins, (New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1961) p. 4.
[31] Roelker, pp. 373-374.
Marilyn Manzer has a B.A.
from the University of California, Irvine, and is an instructor of Latin and
English at Newport Christian Schools.
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